GREEK
TALES AND MYTHOLOGY SERIES
Edited and Designed By Maximillien de Lafayette
GREEK
TALES AND MYTHOLOGY SERIES
Edited and Designed By Maximillien de Lafayette
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The Greeks were one of the first people to create myths. They used them to interpret and understand the world around them. The Greeks combined their mythological tradition with their moral concepts and came up with a set of supreme beings - the Gods - to worship. The conduct of these Gods laid out the foundations for the Greeks' understanding of how to live a virtuous life. Religion in Ancient Greece The Greeks were one of the first peoples to create myths. They used them to interpret and understand the world around them. The Greeks combined their mythological tradition with their moral concepts and came up with a set of supreme beings - the gods - to worship. The conduct of these gods laid out the foundations for the Greeks' understanding of how to live a virtuous life. Traditionally these myths were passed down through their society's storytellers. One of these was Homer, who wrote the epic poems the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'. These poems are the source of much of our knowledge of the Greek gods, and the beliefs surrounding them. Hesiod was also an important ancient writer. His 'Theogony' looks at the origins of the Greek gods and is another significant text when it comes to their study.
The twelve Olympian gods were the best known of these deities. Many regions and even individual villages worshipped their own nymphs or minor gods that were virtually unknown elsewhere. The Olympians ruled after the overthrow of the Titans. All the Olympians are related in some way, and they are named after their dwelling place, Mount Olympus. The relationship between the ancient Greeks and their gods was based on a concept of exchange: if men worshipped and made sacrifices to the gods, then the gods would look favourably upon them in return.Religious festivals in honour of the gods filled the Greek year. The four best known celebrations were the Isthmian, Nemean, Pythian and Olympic Games. These were collectively known as the Panhellenic festivals. The Panhellenic festivals were celebrated with processions and sacrifices. They were also a chance for men from all over the Greek speaking world to compete at a number of sporting events. The Olympic Games were the most prestigious of these games. They were founded in 776 BC in Olympia near the city of Elis, in honour of Zeus, and held every four years. Women were not allowed to watch the games because Olympia was dedicated to Zeus and was a sacred area for men. They were allowed to watch the chariot racing however, as this was held outside the stadium itself. Originally, the games lasted for one day only, but later they were extended to five days to allow for three days of sporting events that began and ended with days dedicated to religious rites and sacrifices. The major events at each of the games were chariot racing, wrestling, boxing, various running races, and the pentathlon (wrestling, running the length of the stadium, long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw). The main event was the foot race of one length of the stadium. A branch of wild olive was the only official prize, but there were usually some unofficial prizes awarded by the cities that the athletes came from. GREEK DEITIES
Aphrodite was the goddess of love,
beauty and fertility. She is also believed to have kept a watchful eye
over sailors. Ancient writers disagree over the story of her
birth. The poet Hesiod said that Aphrodite was born from sea-foam.
Homer, on the other hand, said that she was the daughter of Zeus and
Dione. Aphrodite's primary role was as the goddess of reproduction and
fertility, because this was essential for the survival of the
community. She was the wife of Hephaestus. The myrtle is her
tree, and the dove, the swan, and the sparrow her birds. When the
Trojan prince Paris was asked to judge which of three Olympian
goddesses was the most beautiful, he chose Aphrodite over Hera and
Athena. The latter two had hoped to bribe him with power and victory
in battle, but Aphrodite offered the love of the most beautiful woman
in the world. Aphrodite inspired lust in all the humans and
animals on the planet. No-one could escape the games she used to play
to amuse herself with the relationships between men and women who were
in love. According to the myths, it was Aphrodite who endowed Pandora
with her charms, and made Medea fall in love with the hero Jason. When
Hera wanted to drive Zeus wild with desire, she borrowed Aphrodite's
girdle - which had the power to bewitch any man or god into falling in
love with whoever was wearing it. In fact, most of the amorous
adventures that Zeus became involved in were down to Aphrodite.
Aphrodite's son Aeneas was born as a result of Zeus' efforts to pay
back Aphrodite for her love of inciting inappropriate romances between
her fellow gods. He caused her to become infatuated with the
mortal Anchises. She appeared to him in mortal form, and he became
blinded with love. As a result Aeneas was born. She protected him
throughout the Trojan War. According to Homer, Aphrodite
intervened when the Greek hero Diomedes had been on the verge of
killing Aeneas. Diomedes attacked the goddess herself, wounding her on
the wrist with his spear. Aphrodite dropped Aeneas, who was rescued by
Apollo, another Olympian sponsor of the Trojans. Although she
saved Aeneas, her father Zeus told her to leave war to the likes of
Ares and Athena, while devoting herself to the business of marriage.
Aphrodite also kept her watchful eye on Aeneas in the aftermath of the
war, when he travelled to Italy, and became the mythological founder
of a line of Roman emperors. According to some myths, as a result of
an affair with Ares, Aphrodite was also mother to Eros. Usually
portrayed as a small winged boy, he was her constant companion -
helping her to spread love and fertility amongst both gods and
mortals. Thanks to her beauty, Aphrodite has been portrayed by many
artists. Hesiod's reference to Aphrodite being born from the sea
inspired Botticelli's painting of the goddess on a giant scallop
shell. Venus was Aphrodite's Roman name. The Venus de Milo is
thought to be a representation of Aphrodite.
Apollo was the god of prophecy,
music and healing. Apollo represents order, harmony, and civilization
in a way that most other Greek Gods cannot quite equal. His role as
the leader of the Muses highlights the fact he is a patron of
intellectual pursuits. Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, and
brother of Artemis. When Leto was pregnant she had to face the anger
of Hera - Zeus' wife - who was insulted by her husband's infidelity.
Hera demanded that everywhere in Greece should drive Leto out, so she
was forced to wander endlessly until eventually giving birth on
the island of Ortygia. Leto had a long and difficult birth, and Apollo
was eventually born after nine days and nights. Immediately after
being born, Apollo ascended up to Mount Olympus where he was given
ambrosia and nectar to make him immortal. Like the majority of
Greek Gods, Apollo was constantly intervening in human affairs. It was
he who brought about the demise of the mighty Achilles. Of all the
heroes besieging the city of Troy in the Trojan War, Achilles was the
strongest warrior. He had easily defeated the Trojan captain Hector in
single combat, but Apollo helped Hector's brother Paris slay Achilles
with an arrow. When someone died suddenly, he was said to have been
struck down by one of Apollo's arrows. Homer's epic of the Trojan War
begins with Apollo causing a plague by raining arrows down upon the
Greeks. Apollo taught mankind the gift of prophecy. His
prophetic powers are associated with the original image the Greeks had
of him - the God of light and of the sun. Apollo is notorious for the
number of love affairs he entered into - from his pursuit of the nymph
Daphne (who rejected his advances) to Cassandra. Apollo gave Cassandra
the gift of prophecy, but when she refused to return his affections,
the god's gift became a curse. Apollo fathered many children.
The Muse Calliope is said to have given him the poet and singer
Orpheus, and Creusa bore him a son Ion, who eventually became a great
King and father of all the Ionians. He also fathered Asclepius
as a result of an affair with the mortal woman Coronis. Asclepius was
a Greek hero who later became the Greek god of medicine and healing.
As god of music, Apollo is often depicted playing the lyre. He did not
invent this instrument, however, but was given it by Hermes in
compensation for the theft of his cattle. In art, Apollo always
represents the height of male attractiveness - the eternal youth. For
years, ancient statues of young men were all commonly referred to as
'Apollo', though this was later replaced by the more accurate term 'kouros'
or young man.   Artemis
Artemis was the virgin goddess of
the hunt, and is also associated with the moon. Artemis was the sister
of Apollo and the child of Zeus and Leto. She shared many of Apollo's
characteristics and could be seen as his female side. Like Apollo,
Artemis is often depicted hunting with silver arrows. In some versions
of their myth, Artemis was born first and helped her mother to deliver
Apollo. Because of this she is associated with childbirth, and is the
patron of pregnant women. She is also thought to watch over the
upbringing of young children. Although she was associated with
childbirth and children, Artemis prized her virginity. She
caught Actaeon spying on her when she was bathing naked, and punished
him by transforming him into a stag - allowing his own hunting dogs
to kill him. Thanks to her love of hunting Artemis was also associated
with death. Usually Artemis preferred a swift, direct means of death,
which she accomplished with her silver arrows. Niobe, queen of Thebes,
once boasted that she was better than Leto because she had many
children while Leto only had two. Artemis and Apollo avenged this
insult to their mother by killing the majority of Niobe's children
with their arrows. The weeping Niobe was turned into stone, in which
form she continued to weep. Unlike most of the Olympians, Artemis did
not seem to prefer one side or the other in the Trojan War conflict;
she just supported her brother and his choices. Her actual role
in the Trojan War was minor: she helped heal Aeneas when Diomedes
wounded him. But although she was not really involved in the
conflict, her role was still important. It was because Agamemnon
either failed to make a sacrifice to her, or because he boasted that
his hunting skills were better than those of Artemis, that he was told
to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia, at Aulis. Without that
sacrifice the Greeks would never have been able to set sail, land at
Troy, and fight for ten years. When Apollo noticed that Artemis was
spending a great deal of time hunting with the giant Orion, he decided
to put an end to the relationship. He challenged Artemis to prove her
skill at archery by shooting at an object far out at sea. Her shot was
perfect. The target turned out to be the head of Orion. Artemis
is generally depicted as a young woman clad in buckskins by artists.
She is normally seen with a bow and a quiver of arrows, and is often
accompanied by wild creatures, such as a stag or bear.
Demeter was the goddess of
agriculture. She was responsible for the fertility of the earth, and
protected the crops - especially wheat. Thanks to her association with
the fertility of the earth, Demeter was also thought to watch over
human fertility. Demeter is one of the oldest of the Olympians, though
Homer did not write as extensively about her as he did about some of
the other gods. The best known legend about Demeter is called the
Homeric hymn to Demeter, and concerns her daughter Persephone.
Persephone's beauty bewitched Hades, the God of the Underworld so he
seized her while she was gathering flowers and took her back down to
his realm below, where she became queen. Demeter was heartbroken. She
wandered the length and breadth of the earth in search of her
daughter, during which time the crops withered and it was permanently
winter. People began dying, which alarmed the Gods, so Zeus stepped in
and sent Hermes to bring Persephone back to Olympus. But just as she
was leaving Hades convinced her to eat a pomegranate seed. By eating
in the underworld Persephone would never be able to leave fully, and
would have to return to the underworld to live with Hades for some of
the year. The spring and summer were believed by the Greeks to
coincide with the time Persephone was allowed to spend with Demeter.
The cold, unfertile months of the year came about when she was back in
the underworld with Hades. Demeter is also associated with the
Eleusinian Mysteries. Once her search for Persephone had been
successful and she was about to return to Olympus, she taught the
Kings how she should be worshipped. Ancient writers believed this was
a unique moment of happiness in human existence. Demeter also had a
passionate affair with Jason, a mortal hero. Demeter eventually became
pregnant and bore Jason a son called Plutus. She also tried to
avoid the advances of her brother Poseidon by turning herself into a
mare. However he turned into a stallion and the result of their
pairing was the horse, Arion. Artists often portray Demeter in their
work carrying a sheaf of grain.
Athena was the goddess of war, wisdom and skill. Athena, like Artemis, was a virgin goddess. She was much loved by the Greeks and was the patron goddess of Athens. The story of Athena's birth is an unusual one. Zeus had become enamoured with Metis, a daughter of Oceanus who was renowned for her wisdom. When Metis became pregnant, a prophecy was uttered that a son born to Metis would overthrow him, just as Zeus had taken his own father's throne. Zeus was overcome with fear and swallowed Metis whole. Nine months later he got a splitting headache and begged for help from Hephaestus, the blacksmith god. Hephaestus split Zeus's forehead with an axe, and Athena sprang forth as a fully grown woman. Thanks to her unusual birth, Athena lacked a mother's care, and so her powers were more masculine than feminine. She quickly became Zeus' favourite as he claimed to have fathered her alone. Above all, she was a goddess of war. She had entered life dressed for battle. She alone was allowed to enter her father's armoury, and she was even allowed to use his thunderbolt. Ares, her half brother was seen as the god of war, but he represented disorderly conflict, whereas Athena was believed to have taught mankind the rules of organised warfare. Ares fought on the opposing side to Athena during the Trojan war, and as such was frequently wounded by Athena as she attempted to defend the Greeks. It was Athena who suggested to Odysseus the idea of the Trojan Horse. But Athena didn't only favour Odysseus. She also helped the heroes Perseus, Jason, Cadmus and Heracles in their quests. Both Athena and Poseidon wanted to be patron deity of Athens, so the other Gods advised them to offer the city one gift each. To prove her right to win, Athena made an olive tree grow on the citadel of Athens, the Acropolis. Poseidon tried to outdo her by striking the ground with his trident and causing a spring of water to gush forth. But as he was god of the sea, the water was salty. Athena's gift to the Athenians was considered to be more useful, so she became the city's patron deity. Athena is also said to have taught mankind how to tame horses, and weave. In art, Athena is normally shown as a powerful woman goddess, dressed ready for battle.
Dionysus was the son of Zeus and the
mortal woman Semele. Hera, Zeus' wife, found out about Zeus'
dalliance, and engineered Zeus into accidentally killing Semele with
his lightning bolt. Dionysus was rescued from Semele's womb and
implanted into Zeus' thigh, from where he was eventually born. To
protect the infant god, Hermes changed Dionysus into a baby goat and
took him to a group of nymphs to be raised. While living in the
mountains with the nymphs, Dionysus invented the process of growing
grapes and making wine. Hera continued to persecute Dionysus when he
became an adult, and drove him mad so he wandered aimlessly around the
mortal world, until Rhea cured him of this madness.Dionysus was
renowned for his love of wild parties, loud music and frenzied
dancing. He built up a large group of followers whilst wandering the
earth, called maenads, or "mad women." Those who welcomed him as
they met him on his travels were met with sweet wine to cheer and
comfort them. But those who drove Dionysus away were punished, as his
wine was also capable of causing a frenzy that made people commit
terrible crimes. Eventually Dionysus came to Olympia. The fact that
his mother Semele was mortal meant that some of the gods were unhappy
for Dionysus to be seated with them in Olympus. But Hestia, goddess of
the hearth and one of the twelve original Olympians, voluntarily gave
up her seat to him, and went to tend to the sacred fire on Mount
Olympus. Dionysus married Ariadne, a princess who had been a moon
goddess when the Titans ruled, and together they had several children.
Dionysus was one of the few Greek gods who were faithful to their
wives. It was Dionysus who granted Midas the power to turn
whatever he touched into gold, and then happily took the power back
when it proved inconvenient. In art, Dionysus is often seen
dressed in deerskin, wearing a wreath of vine-leaves and dancing
frantically with nymphs.
Hephaestus was the god of fire and crafts or the two together, hence of blacksmiths. Although he was lame he was excellent at what he did, and his workshop lay under Mount Etna. There were two different legends about the birth of Hephaestus. Some accounts say that he grew up in Olympus with the gods. One day he interrupted a fight between his two parents and Zeus took him by the foot and threw him from Olympus to the earth far below, which resulted in him being lame for the rest of his life. The other legend suggests he is the son of Hera alone. He was born lame, so Hera's feelings of disgrace were so strong that she threw him off Mount Olympus into the sea. Hephaestus was then raised by two sea goddesses, Thetis and Eurynome. When he reached manhood he decided to avenge himself on his mother by trapping her on a golden throne surrounded with invisible nets. None of the gods could set her free, until Dionysus encouraged Hephaestus to drink too much wine and hauled him back to Olympus on a mule. Once Hera was out of the nets Hephaestus was welcomed into Olympus and was given Aphrodite to be his wife as a reward. Hephaestus made many wonderful artifacts for the gods, including the twelve golden thrones of the Olympians, their weapons and treasures, and the armour that he made for Achilles during the siege of Troy. Hephaestus also created the first woman, Pandora, at the command of Zeus, in retaliation for the tricks by which Prometheus, the Titan, had benefited mortal men at the expense of the gods. Pandora was given to the Titan's brother, Epimetheus, as his wife. For her dowry she took with her a jar filled with evils from which she removed the lid, bringing hard work and illness to men for the first time. Only hope remained inside the jar. Among his other creations were the bronze giant Talos who kept a never-ending watch over the Crete of King Minos, and he gave life to the gold watchdog of Zeus. He also helped Athena to be born, by splitting Zeus' forehead with an axe. For all his strength, Hephaestus was mild mannered, and of good humour. His artistry was the pride of Olympus. In art, Hephaestus is usually shown bent over his anvil. He has a beard and is normally depicted as being quite unattractive. He is sometimes shown walking with the aid of a stick.
Hera was the goddess of marriage.
She was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea and wife (and sister) of Zeus.
Hera was queen of all the Olympians, and mother to Ares, Hebe and
Hephaestus. As queen of the gods Hera was both beautiful and
manipulative. As was the case with Zeus, all Olympus shook when she
was angry. Hera's relationship with Zeus was a fiery one. Their
relationship has been interpreted as a symbol of the fertility of the
earth. Zeus and Hera often quarrelled, usually because of Zeus'
infidelities. When Zeus tired of Hera's rages he sometimes tied her to
Mount Olympus by fastening anvils to her feet. Hera not only raged at
Zeus about his infidelities, but also took her anger out on his
mistresses and his illegitimate children. Hera hated Heracles since he
was the son of her husband Zeus and a mortal woman. When he was a
baby, she sent snakes to attack him in his crib. Hera also tried
to prevent the birth of Apollo and Artemis, forcing their mother Leto
to wander the earth looking for a place to give birth. But Hera was
just as passionate about protecting those who were loyal to her. Jason
would not have completed his quest for the Golden Fleece without
Hera's help. During the Trojan War she was steadfastly on the
side of the Greeks, and this often put her into danger. Zeus felt the
gods were too involved in the Trojan War. So Hera borrowed Aphrodite's
magic girdle to seduce him, and distract him from keeping a watchful
eye over the war. This way, she and the other gods could help their
chosen side - whether it was the Trojans or the Greeks - without Zeus
becoming angry. Hera was worshipped throughout Greece, and the oldest
and most important temples were consecrated to her. Her main temple
was at Argos in the Peloponnesus, where she was worshipped as the town
goddess. Hera appears frequently in both literature and art, and is
usually portrayed as a beautiful and intelligent goddess.
Hermes was the messenger of the gods
and guide of dead souls to the Underworld. He is also associated with
the tortoise and the purse. Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maea, one
of the daughters of Atlas. He was a very advanced child, inventing the
lyre by using a tortoise's shell when he was only a newborn baby.
Hermes is also said to have brought fire to the world. He stole some
of Apollo's cattle, and rubbed a laurel twig against a thicker branch
so he could cook two of them. When Apollo discovered Hermes had stolen
his cattle, he was angry. Hermes ended up giving Apollo his lyre as a
peace offering and the two half brothers were reconciled. Zeus was
very impressed with Hermes, and gave him his staff as a symbol of his
status as messenger of the gods. As messenger god, it was natural for
Hermes to become the patron saint of travellers. The ancient Greeks
also believed he was in charge of the winds and all other phenomena
associated with the air. Hermes was known for his helpfulness to
mankind. He assisted the heroes Odysseus and Perseus in their quests.
When Perseus set out to fight Medusa, Hermes even loaned the hero his
own magic sandals, which gave the wearer the ability to fly. It was
Hermes' job to convey dead souls to Hades. He was also closely
connected with dreams and ghosts. Known for his athleticism, Hermes
also invented running and boxing. A statue of him stood at the
entrance to the stadium at Olympia, and his statues were in every
gymnasium in Greece. Like many of the gods, Hermes had numerous
romances, and according to different myths fathered three children -
Pan, Abderus and Hermaphroditus. In art, Hermes is shown as a
handsome and athletic young man, usually seen in his winged helmet and
shoes, and carrying his staff.
Poseidon was the son of Cronus and
Rhea. His sisters were Hera and Demeter, and his brother was Zeus.
Although Poseidon is officially an Olympian, he was involved in the
division of the world, so he ruled the sea just as Zeus ruled the sky,
and Hades ruled the underworld. Poseidon had a palace in Olympus, and
one in his underwater domain. In dividing heaven, the sea and the
underworld, the Olympians agreed that the earth itself would be ruled
jointly, with Zeus as king. As god of the seas Poseidon held great
power, and could calm the waves or summon up terrible storms. He had
an unreliable temper, and used his powers to inflict fear and
punishment on people as revenge. Poseidon could be cooperative though,
and sailors relied on him to provide a safe voyage at sea. He also
helped the Greeks during the Trojan War. He also had the ability to
create earthquakes, and this talent earned him the name of 'Earth
Shaker' or 'he who rocks the earth.' Poseidon married the sea-nymph
Amphitrite, Nereus's daughter, and lived with her in his underwater
palace. When he first tried to seduce Amphitrite, she hid from him in
the sea in the land of Atlas. Poseidon was heartbroken, and sent a
dolphin to find her and convince her to come back to him.
Poseidon had many lovers, and fathered numerous children. After an
affair with Cleito he fathered five pairs of twin boys, the first born
being Atlas whom he appointed as king of Atlantis. Poseidon also
pursued his sister Demeter and to avoid him she turned herself into a
mare. In his lust for her, Poseidon transformed himself into a
stallion and captured her. Their union resulted in a horse, Arion.
As god of horses Poseidon often turned himself into a stallion. The
winged horse Pegasus was the result of his affair with the Gorgon,
Medusa. When the hero Perseus killed her it was said that Pegasus
sprung from her severed neck. Poseidon was also father of the heroes
Theseus, Orion, Proteus and Despoena amongst others. Poseidon
did not look favourably on the hero Odysseus because he blinded the
Cyclops Polyphemus, who was another of Poseidon's sons. Poseidon
delayed the hero's homeward return from the Trojan War. He also raised
the sea into a great storm with his trident to shipwreck Odysseus.
Poseidon also fought with Athena over who should be patron of the city
of Athens. When he lost out to Athena, Poseidon flooded the Attic
Plain but eventually Athena and Poseidon worked things out and
combined their powers. Artists often showed Poseidon travelling across
the waves in his golden chariot, or whipping up the waves into a
frenzy with his trident to symbolise his more tempestuous moods.
Zeus was the youngest son of Cronus
and Rhea (who were also parents to Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and
Poseidon). When he was born, his father Cronus intended to swallow him
as he had all of Zeus's brothers and sisters, but Rhea hid the newborn
in a cave. When he had grown up, Zeus caused Cronus to vomit up his
sisters and brothers, and these gods helped him to gain control of the
universe from the Titans and Cronus, their king. The gods defeated the
dynasty of the Titans, and then banished them. Zeus, Poseidon and
Hades divided up the universe between them. Hades got the underworld,
Poseidon the sea, and Zeus as supreme god, got the heavens. As the
ruler of the Olympian gods, Zeus wielded enormous power and almost
absolute authority. His role was primarily to watch over the
activities of the other gods, and make sure they weren't exceeding
their power. But Zeus could be distracted from his role as
leader and father figure. Hera his wife managed this, by borrowing
Aphrodite's magic girdle to seduce Zeus and distract him from the
Trojan War.His relationship with Hera was a tempestuous one, mainly
because of Zeus' one main weakness - his love of women. He had a
notorious wandering eye, and a continuous string of affairs with
mortal women and goddesses which never failed to provoke Hera into a
rage. Among his conquests were the goddess Metis (the mother of
Athena), the Titan Leto (the mother of Apollo and Artemis), Maea (the
mother of Hermes) and the mortal Semele (the mother of Dionysus). He
not only fathered gods, but was also the father of the mortal heroes
Perseus and Heracles, who once managed to wrestle him into a draw. In
ancient Greece, there was an altar to Zeus in every room, as he was
also thought to protect possessions, peace in the household and
marriage. Zeus could issue harsh punishments if mortals disobeyed him,
but he was always willing to forgive them if they demonstrated their
remorse and prayed to him. For this reason Zeus had many temples and
festivals in his honour, the most famous being Olympia, the
magnificent Temple of Zeus. The Olympic Games were also held in honour
of Zeus. In art, Zeus was usually portrayed as a powerful and
charismatic figure throwing his bolt of lightning. He is a bearded,
middle aged god, with a strong and muscular build.
Ares is usually said to be the son
of Zeus and Hera; but in some legends he and Eris, his twin sister,
were born when Hera touched a flower. Ares was unpopular with
both mortals and gods. He was disliked by both of his parents, and was
considered by the Greeks to be murderous and nasty, yet also a coward.
As a result Ares was never worshipped to any great extent and no Greek
city had him as their patron. Unlike Athena, who came up with
methodical and orderly ways of waging war, Ares thought the bloodier
the battle the better! Ares was just as enthusiastic about
women. He had an affair with Aphrodite, and was father to many
children - most of whom grew up to be cruel and violent kings. He also
had four children with Aphrodite - Deimus, Phobos, Eros and Harmony.
Ares killed Halirrhothios, son of Poseidon, when the youth tried to
ravish his daughter, Alcippe. For this crime Ares was judged by a
tribunal of the Olympians and acquitted - the first time the twelve
Olympians were recognised as a supreme court. The hill on which the
trial took place, the Areopagus, was named after him. This name is
still used for the modern Greek supreme court. Though an immortal
deity, he was bested by Heracles in battle and was almost killed when
stuffed into a jar by two giants. In appearance, Ares was
handsome and cruel. He is often depicted carrying a bloodstained
spear. His throne on Mount Olympus was said to be covered in human
skin. The Roman god Mars, with whom Ares was identified, was the
father of Romulus and Remus, the mythological founders of Rome. Thus
he was more important to the Romans than his Greek counterpart. He was
also more dignified. There were many other Gods that the
Greeks believed in alongside the Olympians. Some of them lived in
Olympus alongside the twelve Olympians; the rest lived in the
underworld with Hades, in Poseidon's watery realm, or lived on the
earth with mankind. Hestia (Roman name Vesta) is one of the most modest figures among the twelve ancient Greek Gods. She is the goddess of the hearth and fire. Hestia is the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and sister of Hera, Demeter, Poseidon, Zeus and Pluto. As such, she was worshipped as the most ancient of the Olympians. Her seniority meant she was respected by all the Gods, even Zeus. One legend even says that Zeus gave permission for Hestia to be worshipped in any temple, regardless of which god they were dedicated to. Hestia was pure and peace-loving, and kept free from all disputes and delicate situations. She was considered to represent personal security and happiness, and was the most placid and fair of all the gods. Although Hestia was another virgin goddess, both Poseidon and Apollo proposed marriage to her, but she rejected them. Hestia was one of the twelve Olympians, until Dionysus the god of wine was born to Zeus, and a mortal woman Semele. When Dionysus came to Olympia, Hestia voluntarily gave up her seat to him, and went to tend to the sacred fire on Mount Olympus.
Asclepius (Roman name Aesculapius)
was a Greek hero who later became the Greek god of medicine and
healing. He was the son of Apollo and the mortal woman Coronis. His
symbol was the physician's staff, with a snake coiled round it, his
animal was the snake, and his bird was the cock. Artemis, Apollo's
twin sister killed Corona before Asclepius was born because she was
unfaithful to Apollo. Coronis was burnt on a funeral pyre, but at the
last second, Apollo saved his unborn son and asked the Centaur Chiron
to watch over him. Chiron taught Asclepius the art of medicine and
healing. He married Epione, and had two sons (Machaon and Podalirius),
and a daughter - Hygeia, the goddess who personified health. Asclepius
became renowned for his great medical knowledge. However he took
things a step too far when he decided to not only heal the sick, but
to also raise the dead. Zeus sent down a thunderbolt to kill him
because he felt Asclepius had interfered with the natural order of
things. But after his death, Zeus acknowledged the good he had brought
mankind and made him into a god. Heracles (Roman name Hercules)
is the son of the god Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene. He lived a
mortal life, before being made into a god after his death. His
gift was enormous strength; he strangled two serpents in his cradle,
and killed a lion before even reaching manhood. Heracles' main enemy
was Zeus' wife, Hera. She eventually drove him mad, during which time
he killed his own children and his brother's. He was so grieved upon
recovery that he exiled himself and consulted the oracle of Apollo.
The oracle told him to perform twelve labours, which he completed
successfully. Heracles eventually met his death after being
poisoned from a garment his wife Deianira sent him that was soaked in
the centaur Nessus' blood. On his death he was taken to Olympus
and given the goddess Hebe as his wife. They lived together in a
palace on Olympus.
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ATLANTIS
Quite why a story written 2,500 years ago by the Greek philosopher Plato continues to capture the public imagination is a mystery in itself - a mystery fed by countless books, films, articles, and now a Disney cartoon. It has spawned a rich populist sub-culture (much of it internet-based) which pits the passions and imaginations of committed 'Atlanteans' against the orthodox analysis of the scientific mainstream. Part of the contemporary appeal of the Atlantis story has no doubt been fed by scientists. Historians, archaeologists and geologists have also entered the debate to contest the various literary, historical or geographical elements of the story.
Currently - following Bernhard Zangger's new book presenting the archaeological case for Troy as the true inspiration for Atlantis - we have the documentary 'Helike - The Real Atlantis' staking the same claim for the Classical Greek city of Helike. Atlantis, it seems, remains a very bankable media product. So what do we actually know about Atlantis and its demise? The answer is not much. Plato's story comes to us from two short pieces, Tinnaeus and Critias, believed to have been written in the decade or so before his death in 348 BC.
In these, he presents an apparently true account of an ideal society that existed many millennia before the Classical Greek times in which he was writing. According to Plato, Atlantis was a great island (larger than Libya and Asia combined) in the Atlantic Ocean, but its control extended beyond the 'Pillars of Heracles' into the Mediterranean as far as Egypt and Tyrrhenia (Italy). Its powerful and remarkable dynasty of kings arose directly from Poseidon, god of sea and of earthquakes, though this divine and heroic lineage gradually became diluted by mixing with mortal stock. The resulting degeneration of this noble civilisation led it into a war with its former ally, Athens, and culminated in its cataclysmic destruction, which Plato dates as 9,000 years previously. Of the destruction itself, Plato simply notes, 'Some time later there were earthquakes and floods of extraordinary violence, and in a single dreadful day and night all your life [ie, Athenian] fighting men were swallowed up by the earth, and the island of Atlantis was similarly swallowed up by the sea and vanished'. While the bulk of Plato's account of Atlantis details its physical and political layout, its location and the nature of its destruction warrant only a few hundred words. It is a meagre foundation for the weight of subsequent theories and speculations on which the modern controversy is based. Today, the myriad of theories - many of them breathtakingly fantastic ('Atlantis was an exploded planet'!) - ensures that the true nature of Plato's story is as elusive as ever. For those committed Atlanteans that believe Atlantis existed much as Plato described, the possible locations of the lost city are becoming increasingly exotic. Recent candidates lie as far afield as the Caribbean, South America, Antarctica, Ireland and French Polynesia. Many theories, however, contend that the Plato's Atlantis refers to the rise and fall of a known ancient civilisation, though one whose age or location differs from that expressed by Plato. Which ancient civilisation, of course, is a matter of vigorous debate. The Minoans of Crete have long been a popular choice, though there are plenty of other suggestions, one of which, Troy, has been given fresh support by Zangger. However, the fact that each of these competing theories requires some degree of adjustment (or re-interpretation of Plato's original account) has led many scholars to adopt the view held by many of his contemporaries- that Atlantis is a piece of fiction and is arguably best summed up in the words of the American classical scholar Daniel Dombrowski: 'Atlantis was only a powerful literary device invented by Plato, which was to act as a means of highlighting the fate of the ideal state created in Plato's mind's eye. The only place in which Atlantis can be found, in addition to the writings of Plato, is in the minds of those with an imagination as vivid as that of Plato.' But if it was fictional, to what extent is the story drawn from or coloured by events in Classical Greek history? The story was written during a remarkable golden age of observation and discourse about the natural world. Through the writings of contemporary scholars like Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle and Callisthenes, historical seismologists have been able to piece together a picture of earthquakes affecting Greece at this time. That picture reveals that earthquakes struck with a frequency and ferociousness which far exceeds anything modern records have documented in recent centuries. Perhaps more significantly, several of these earthquakes assumed great political and cultural importance. Earthquake war
The first earthquake of 'epoch-making importance' struck Sparta in 469-464 BC, occurring at a time when the balance of power between Sparta and Athens was in a delicate state. It took Sparta by surprise, killing more than 20,000 Spartans and immediately leading to internal and external uprisings by its subject peoples. The result was the so-called 'earthquake war' between the Spartans and their neighbours, during which Sparta's refusal to accept help from Athens resulted in increased hostilities between them. These hostilities festered for decades, culminating in 431 BC with the start of the Peloponnesian Wars, a 25-year bloody civil war between Sparta and her allies and Athens and her allies. Shortly after the start of the Peloponnesian War and the third in a series of epidemics that ravaged Athens, the summer of 426 BC brought one of the most disastrous earthquakes recorded in the ancient sources. Contemporary reporters tell of widespread building collapse, destruction caused by seismic sea-waves (tsunamis) and thousands of victims. Although its effects were concentrated north of Athens, near modern-day Lamia, there were wider ramifications. A Spartan army camped 100km west of Athens at the Isthmus of Corinth were poised to attack the city, but numerous violent earthquakes forced them to flee home. Meanwhile the seismic sea-wave wreaked havoc along much of the coast north of Athens, including an island called Atalante where an Athenian fort and several warships were destroyed. Accounts by later writers such as Diodorus Siculus (first century BC) and Strabo (first century AD) actually report that the island of Atalante was created as a consequence of the seismic sea wave. The high death toll, widespread damage and dramatic coastline changes would no doubt have exacerbated the tense situation endured by an Athens besieged by war and epidemics. The Peloponnesian Wars formally ended in 404 BC, though intermittent hostilities continued between Sparta and Athens until a peace treaty in 387 BC. But shortly after this another calamitous earthquake event befell the region: in 373 BC, a violent earthquake, accompanied by a seismic sea wave, destroyed Helike and Bura, two cities situated on the southern shores of the Gulf of Corinth, roughly 150 km west of Athens. HelikeAt the time of its destruction, Helike was the flourishing capital of the Achaean League, a confederation of city states, and revered throughout the ancient world as the cult centre for worship of Poseidon. The sacred grove of Poseidon was second only to the oracle at nearby Delphi in terms of sanctuary sites at that time, and in promoting a spirit of harmonious co-existence and collaboration with neighbouring states, Helike ensured that it largely remained uninvolved in the turbulent political upheaval around it. This state of political and social harmony, and the healthy economic growth that it encouraged, ended one winter's night in 373 BC. Numerous contemporary and later sources provide dramatic testimony to what happened to Helike and Bura that night. The Greek writer Pausanius, visiting the site of the devastation almost 500 years later, recounted how, 'An earthquake struck the country and destroyed every single building, until the very foundations of the city were lost for all time.' The accompanying seismic sea-wave '...flooded in far over the land and overwhelmed the city and its surroundings, and the swell of the sea so covered the sacred grove of Poseidon that nothing could be seen but the tops of the trees. A sudden tremor was sent by the god, and with the earthquake the sea ran back, dragging down Helike into the receding waters with every living person.' After the disaster, whatever was left of Helike's land was divided amongst its neighbours. The nearby city of Aegion assumed control of the Achaean League, and Helike went into political obscurity. A tradition sprang up amongst its Achaean neighbours that Helike had been punished by Poseidon for defiling the sanctuary, though it was perhaps more its unrivalled supremacy amongst the other city states that sealed its ultimate downfall. Nevertheless, its removal from the political scene was mirrored by the physical removal of the city, believed by most ancient writers to now lie deep below the waters of the Corinthian gulf. Travellers like Strabo and Pausanius, searching out the city several centuries later, were shown only a few sunken ruins and accounts of a submerged bronze statue of Poseidon that snagged the nets of local fishermen. The real AtlantisThe modern archaeological search for Helike, and its likely discovery onshore beneath the modern coastal plain, is recounted in BBC Horizon's 'Helike - The Real Atlantis'. However, it is the programme's contention that the real legacy of the disaster was the birth of the Atlantis myth that is likely to have the most resonance with wider audiences. The destructive force and the vicinity of the great cultural centres of the Greek world, undoubtedly made the earthquake at Helike a momentous scientific event. It led to Aristotle formulating his theory that earthquakes and accompanying seismic sea-waves were the physical product of contrary meteorological conditions rather than supernatural actions, a theory subsequently accepted for more than 1,800 years. It must have also made had a major impact on Aristotle's contemporary, Plato - born around 427 BC, and in his mid 50s when Helike was lost. The destruction in a single night of the revered city of Poseidon by an earthquake and seismic sea-wave and its disappearance into the sea bear the main hallmarks of Atlantis's sudden demise. Other hallmarks can be found in the accounts of the two great earthquakes that preceded it, however. With the great Spartan earthquake of 464 BC that ushered in the frenetic wars between Sparta and Athens, and the seismic sea-wave that ripped apart Atalante island in 426 BC under the shadow of these warring superpowers, most of the ingredients for Plato's obliteration of Atlantis are there. At the end of a century that had witnessed one of the most violent earthquake storms to have affected the ancient world, ordinary Greeks probably didn't speculate on the origins of the mythical Atlantis; they were too busy surviving its reality. By Dr. Alan Stewart.
Olympiad, Athletics and Mythology
From the 8th century BC onwards, the emergence of the first city-states (poleis) influenced the evolution in athletics. Various systems of gymnastics were set up in each city-state, which included gymnastic exercises, musical training, reading and writing. As long as aristocrats were in power, training aimed at the supremacy of the young members of the noble families. The education of the young people aimed at helping them to develop both their body and mind and achieve harmony. Physical exercise was accompanied by music. Music, dance and athletics, all helped to achieve a harmonious balance between the body and the mind. A plethora of local festivals were organized by the emergent city-states in the 8th century BC. They provided a variety of competitive contexts in which most of the citizens of the city-states had the opportunity to demonstrate openly their virtues and fight for excellence. Gradually, music and athletic contests evolved into organized regional festivals of a repetitive nature. Such contests were directly connected to the cults of gods and heroes, thus stressing out their religious character. During the games, athletes from various places gathered to demonstrate their physical and moral virtues in honor of the local deity or hero. By demonstrating the strength of his body, the athlete pleased the gathered crowd, gained recognition and made his city-state famous henceforth. The athlete's victory was celebrated by making offerings to the local god, such as tripods and figurines indicating the significance of the victory for the athlete and his homeland.
The choice of Olympia For centuries, the Olympic Games were considered the most important celebration of all Panhellenic festivals. The various myths associated to the Games do not help in a full understanding of the exact reasons why Olympia was chosen for the conduct of the Games nor do they explain its becoming a very important religious center for the Greek world. When faced with this difficult challenge archeology is our most valuable ally. Based on mythology, history and archeology it can be assumed that already by the 10th century BC Olympia was a cult place, known to the elite of Western Peloponnese. The character of the original dedications (animal figurines) reveals agricultural and pastoral interests, whereas horse and chariot figurines reflect the interests of more wealthy people. Obviously, Olympia came to be a regional cult place for people of different social background and various interests. In a region divided into small-scale territorial units, neutral religious centers functioned as meeting places of the local elite. A broadening of the cult activities held in Olympia came by the late 8th century BC, when participation was expanded to include a larger number of city-states in the worship festivities at Olympia. The region of Elis, where Olympia lies, was resettled again (750-700 BC) and several dispersed settlements were formed in the area. From this period and on, the sanctuary gradually became a crucial place of celebration, a place that inspired and attracted numerous visitors from different areas of Greece throughout antiquity.
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INTO
MYSTERIES, PARANORMAL AND CONSPIRACIES? BETWEEN SCIENCE AND
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GREEK
TALES AND MYTHOLOGY
Photo:
The Olympians.
Photo:
Athletes in ancient Greece.
Aphrodite
Apollo
Demeter
Athena
Dionysus
Hephaestus
Hera
Hermes
Poseidon
Zeus
Ares
Photo:
Hestia.
Photo:
Asclepius.
Photo:
Heracles.
Photo:
Pluto.
